Functional Neurological Disorder: Treatments, Assessments, and Therapists
Introduction
If you’re a patient working with an occupational therapist for functional neurological disorder (FND), we want you to be as informed as possible—so we, as OTs, can truly partner to create the best course of treatment for YOU.
In occupational therapy, we often work from “menus” of evidence-based assessments and treatments. This gives us the flexibility to meet the specific needs of each patient, while still following research-backed care protocols. Below, you’ll see the assessment and treatment options your therapist may use, along with the evidence that supports them.
Please note that this page is for educational purposes and should not substitute advice from your healthcare provider(s). At the bottom of this page, you’ll find therapists near you who can support you in your FND treatment.
A quick note on why to pursue therapy
FND treatment is typically delivered by a multidisciplinary team that can include OT.
Occupational therapists specialize in providing holistic, personalized treatments for the mind and body that are designed to progress your overall independence.
This is done through client-focused, therapist-led treatments that improve your ability to re-engage in tasks such as dressing, feeding yourself, going to school or work, or participating in preferred activities.
Ideally, conservative treatment like rehabilitation therapy—including OT—is the first course of care for FND.
That is because therapy is safer and much more cost-effective than invasive options like surgery, investigative treatments, and medications—which may also involve a long list of rule-out testing and unnecessary specialist visits (when patients actually meet the criteria for FND).
Studies show that annual costs (both direct and indirect) associated with FND range from $5K–$86K (USD) per patient due to delayed diagnoses, stigmatization of the disorder, and inadequate medical education—which can lead to high utilization of healthcare resources, including hospital and emergency department services (Mahoney et al., 2023; Watson et al., 2023). With timely diagnosis and treatment focused on symptom management and quality of life, there is potential to reduce this cost significantly (by 9–91%) (Mahoney et al., 2023).
And, we believe that occupational therapy is an essential, often-missing element of FND care.
The number of therapy sessions needed will vary based on the results of your initial evaluation. In general, the greater your initial disability, the more frequent your sessions—and potentially, the longer you will attend therapy. Some models of care include intensives, where you attend therapy more frequently for a short period of time. You will collaborate with your therapist during your initial evaluation to determine the best care plan for you. Note that future episodes of therapy care may be required, though a personalized home program will allow for increasing self-management after you finish therapy—empowering you to optimize your outcomes and return to functional activities long-term. (Read more about this in the discharge section below.)
Related Assessments
Assessments are powerful tools to help us partner in your care. They establish a clear baseline, direct our treatment efforts, and give us a reliable way to track your progress over time. Your team may select some specific measures that fit your unique situation. Here are some examples:
General Functional Assessments
- Assessment of Motor and Process Skills (AMPS)
- Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM)
- COMPASS-31 (autonomic)
- Functional Independence Measure (FIM)
- General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)
- Manual Muscle Testing (MMT)
- QuickDASH
- Range of Motion Testing (ROM)
- The Model of Human Occupation Screening Tool
- WeeFIM
Symptom Specific Assessments
General Functional Assessments1,2, Symptom Specific Assessments1
Possible Goal Areas
Therapy is most successful when patients and therapists work together to set goals. It is essential that you collaborate with your therapist to determine treatment goals that truly reflect what’s important to you. Before your occupational therapy evaluation, it may be helpful to consider the following:
What areas of daily life are currently challenging for me?
What are my top 5 biggest functional challenges, concerns, or priority areas?
What does a typical 24-hour routine look like for me?
What are my strengths?
What approaches have been successful in maximizing my function or ability to complete tasks in my daily life?
Goal bank for therapists
Each goal is intended as a starting point. The functional motivation behind each goal should be identified collaboratively with the client.
Focus on functional goals, rather than impairment-based goals.1
Client will be able to name and utilize a grounding strategy when at risk of entering a dissociative state to maximize function and participation with 75% success.
Client will be able to identify and utilize at least 3 different strategies for self management to maximize success in (identified occupational area(s)) with (level of assist) with 75% success.
Client will clearly articulate understanding of diagnosis/ symptom mechanisms and contributing exacerbating factors (e.g., autonomic, social, psychological, motor, sensory, lifestyle) as needed for health management and social participation.
Client will report a clinically significant (2 points or more) increase in satisfaction and performance on identified areas of occupational challenge by discharge to demonstrate improvement in occupational performance and satisfaction.
Client will demonstrate knowledge of tools for self-management for relapse-prevention and access to available resources in case of symptom recurrence, as is expected due to nature of condition, by time of discharge.
Treatment Interventions
After a thorough evaluation and goal-setting process, it is time to start making progress. Below are treatment interventions that your provider may utilize in a holistic occupational therapy program.
Therapeutic relationship and rapport building 4
Education for patients, family, and caregivers 1,2,3,5,6
Collaborative outline of the systems and contributing factors to FND presentation (e.g., physical, psychological, social, lifestyle, and autonomic) 2,6
Assessment of 24-hour routine 1,2,4,6
Education about patterns that may negatively affect the ability to adapt
Stress and anxiety management 1
Retraining of normal movement within function 1
Unlock automatic movement
Shift to an external focus of attention 2,4
Utilize preferred activities and interests
Use the brain to the individual’s advantage by multi-tasking with fidgets or other sensory inputs
Exercise and practice targeted movement 1,2
Strategies to regulate the autonomic nervous system (e.g., mind-body connection, fight/flight, and rest/digest)
Biofeedback, or insight into the body’s functioning through the use of technology that measures things like muscle tension, breathing and heart rate, body temperature, or sweat
Sensory sensitivity assessment to determine treatment for hyper- or hypo-sensitivity
Education and practice in energy management and pacing skills to manage fatigue and symptom flares2
Education on pain management strategies 1,2
Desensitization may be indicated in some cases
Sleep hygiene and routines to address sleep challenges 6
Daily activity engagement (e.g., dressing, feeding, hygiene)
Exploration of accommodations and options for work, school, or volunteerism 1,6
Exploration and participation in new or old hobbies and fun activities 6
Social engagement and brainstorming solutions for challenges
Cognitive rehabilitation for challenges with “brain fog” and thinking limitations 1
Support for self-management1
Treatment Interventions with Notes for Clinicians
Establish therapeutic relationship4
Education
Increase knowledge around physiology/mechanism of symptoms (disorder of brain, mind, and body; difficulty with brain-body connectivity)2,5
Provide written or electronic information in cases where patient still doubts2
Emphasize importance of client’s confidence in the diagnosis3
Understanding what the client believes/has been told
Creating a summary of the various systems with contributing factors to presentation in collaboration with the patient/family (e.g., physical, psychological, social, lifestyle, autonomic)2,6
Assessment of 24-hour routine1,2
Sleep, activity patterns, occupational engagement
Psychosocial4,6
Believe them, symptoms are real and understood2
Acknowledge that these symptoms are common2
Potential for reversibility2
Exploring compounding stressors at home, among family, school or work, and in community
Understanding and acknowledging patterns that lead to maladaptation
Addressing and understanding fear and avoidance, if present
Shared expectations of improvement in function2,4
Collaborative goal setting for achievable outcomes
Due to nervous system functioning, not irreversible damage
Use of intentional language to remove blame or fault and foster automatic movement2
Stress and anxiety management1
Shifting to an external focus of attention4
Minimize attention to self and instead use dual tasking, external focus, and distraction
Occupation based (“task-oriented”) is more effective than those out of context cognitive distractors2
Tuning in to preferred activities and interests
Autonomic regulation
Education
Grounding, external focus breath training (e.g., bubbles or games with exhale), co-regulation
Increasing orthostatic intolerance, when applicable
Relaxation exercises1
Sensory1,2
Regulation, creating “toolbox”
Grounding to present moment, prevent dissociating
Proprioceptive weighting and compression
Vestibular rehabilitation, when applicable
Addressing hypersensitivities
Biofeedback
Retraining normal movement within function1
Dual tasking (fidgets, sensory inputs)
Counteract predictive brain with novelty and the unexpected
Unlock automatic movement
Exercise and movement
Functional, rather than rote strengthening exercises2
Promote normal movement with proper postural alignment1
Slow activities such as yoga or tai chi, especially in case of functional jerks1
Autonomy and sense of control, build personal agency
Enhanced expectancies (e.g., others with your presentation have done well with this treatment)
Education for family and caregivers1,6
Energy management, pacing2
Pain management1,2
Desensitization, as in cases of allodynia
Education on root cause as one picture, rather than many separate issues
Re-engagement in physical activity
Assessment and management of dystonia, if applicable
Sleep routines and quality6
Vocational rehabilitation1
Education for employers and educators
Work and school accommodations and supports6
Paid or unpaid work exploration1
Leisure and play exploration, identification, and engagement6
Social engagement
Role playing and scripts for engaging with others about symptoms
Cognitive rehabilitation1
Normalizing and connecting as part of FND
Address underlying factors that may exacerbate cognitive function
Consider supportive strategies (calendar reminders, alarms)
Support self-management1
Interactive workbook, therapy journal
Develop an internal locus of control
Generally, limit or avoid
The use of aids and adaptations, unless necessary for safety1,2
Splinting, especially immobilization and serial casting1,2
Red flags:
Clients should come with a definitive diagnosis of FND for optimal treatment, to ensure confidence in diagnosis for client and provider. However, in many community settings (non-specialty centers) we know that this can be challenging. We encourage assessment for positive signs of FND and further medical rule out when indicated if the clinician has concerns3
Orthostatic intolerance is common, however an underlying dysautonomia that has not be diagnosed is an indication for referral to medical specialist7
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome may be more common in this population; monitor for signs of hypermobility and proceed appropriately (see OT Potential hEDS)8
Discharge Suggestions
Each individual is unique; therefore, each patient’s response to therapy will also be unique. With FND, it often is not appropriate to continue therapy until you see a complete resolution of symptoms. Some individuals will see significant progress early in therapy; for others, it will take time to make noticeable gains. Many individuals benefit from breaks in care before returning to focus on certain goals. Regardless, we do know that self-management and integration of a home program into one’s lifestyle is essential.
Collaborate with your therapist leading up to discharge to gather recommendations that will help you maintain progress made in therapy. This could include:
Personalized self-management strategies
Plans for activity engagement on good days versus tougher days
Consistent routine engagement
Adapted aide usage plan
Identification of your support system
Continue to use self-management and empowerment strategies to manage remaining challenges.
Follow a consistent, individualized home program.
Consult your therapist if your symptoms worsen—or if you continue to have difficulty with daily activities and believe a new episode of care would be helpful.
Education Resources for Clients
If you are looking for more education on FND, here are some websites you may find helpful:
Education Resources for Clinicians
Jason Kreuzman Instagram: @FND_OT
Re+Active Instagram: @Reactivept
Re+Active FND CEUs re+active brain changing education
Choosing a Therapist
Occupational therapists, physical therapists, and psychologists are often essential members of the care team for individuals with FND. Here, we describe the role of an occupational therapist in FND treatment.
Occupational therapists have a graduate degree specializing in occupational therapy (typically a master’s degree or a clinical doctorate), meaning they have 5–8 years of post-secondary education (in the United States; other countries have different educational requirements).
Below, you can find occupational therapy professionals who have tagged “FND” as a focus area. You can also access the “find a provider” resource from FNDHope.org or call local therapy clinics in your area to inquire about the FND treatment they offer.
Though many OTs do not specialize in FND, their training is sufficient to engage a wide variety patients in individualized interventions to help improve function, regardless of diagnosis. You can further maximize your success and the therapist’s approach by sharing this page with them and referencing the additional continuing education options and resources provided here.
Jamie Boldig
MOT, OTR/L
Appleton, Wisconsin
Aging in Place, ADHD, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Anxiety, Aphasia & Communication Disorders, Assistive Technology, Autism, Burns, Cancer, Cerebral Palsy, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Coaching, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Dementia, Depression & Mood Disorders, Dystonia, Ergonomics, Fitness, Feeding and Eating, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Grant Writing, Hand Therapy, Health Data, Health Policy, Health Promotion, Hippotherapy, Home Modifications, Insomnia & Sleep, Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), Knowledge Translation, Lifestyle Medicine, Leadership, Medication Management, Multiple Sclerosis, Nature-based, Neurodiversity, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), Orthopedics & Musculoskeletal, Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Parkinson’s, Pelvic Health, Prevention, Population Health, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS), Rare Diseases, Rheumatic Diseases, Seating and Mobility, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI, Trauma & PTSD, Tourette syndrome, Voice & Fluency
Paul Pettyjohn
OTR/L, CPAMS, MLD/CDT, CAPS
Monterey Park, California
Aging in Place, Burns, Cancer, Cerebral Palsy, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Ergonomics, Fitness, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Hand Therapy, Health Promotion, Home Modifications, Lymphedema, NICU, Orthopedics & Musculoskeletal, Prevention, Stroke, TBI
John Britton
M.S.
Student
Terre Haute, Indiana
ADHD, Anxiety, Depression & Mood Disorders, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Neurodiversity, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), Trauma & PTSD
Mallory Taylor
OTR/L
Phoenix, Arizona
Anxiety, Aphasia & Communication Disorders, Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Feeding and Eating, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, Parkinson’s, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI, Trauma & PTSD
Jody Niemann Priest
MS, OTR/L
AdventHealth Sports Med and Rehab
New Smyrna Beach, Florida
Cognitive Rehabilitation, Dementia, Drivers Rehabilitation, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Low Vision Rehabilitation, Multiple Sclerosis, Neurorehabilitation, Parkinson’s, Stroke, TBI
Shubhangi Sharma
OTR, Registered OT (BC)
Shubhangi (Shubhi) Occupational Therapy, Coaching and Consulting
Vancouver, British Columbia
ADHD, Anxiety, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Coaching, Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, Ergonomics, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Health Promotion, Insomnia & Sleep, Neurodiversity, Rheumatic Diseases, Sexuality/Intimacy, Trauma & PTSD
Katy Owens
OTR/L, TPS
Empowered Path Occupational Therapy
Loveland, Colorado
ADHD, Anxiety, Autism, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Coaching, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Health Promotion, Home Modifications, Insomnia & Sleep, Knowledge Translation, Leadership, Multiple Sclerosis, Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, Prevention, Population Health, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS), Rheumatic Diseases, Sexuality/Intimacy, Trauma & PTSD
Naoya Ogura
OTD, OTR/L
[re+active] therapy and wellness
Los Angeles, California
ADHD, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Coaching, Dementia, Dystonia, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Health Promotion, Lifestyle Medicine, Multiple Sclerosis, Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, Parkinson’s, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS), Rare Diseases, Stroke, TBI, Trauma & PTSD
Emily Rich
PhD., OTR/L
Occupational Therapist
Tucson Medical Center
Tucson, Arizona
ADHD, Cancer, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Lifestyle Medicine, Neurodiversity, Parkinson’s, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS)
Salmin Chacha
OTR/L
Occupational Therapist
AL NOOR TRAINING CENTRE
dubai
ADHD, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, Aquatic Therapy, Aphasia & Communication Disorders, Assistive Technology, Autism, Burns, Cerebral Palsy, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, CIMT, Coaching, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Dementia, Depression & Mood Disorders, Developmental Delays, Dystonia, Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, Ergonomics, Emergency Department, Feeding and Eating, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Grant Writing, Hand Therapy, Health Data, ICU/Critical Care, Insomnia & Sleep, Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), Knowledge Translation, Lifestyle Medicine, Low Vision Rehabilitation, Maternal Health, Medication Management, Mitochondrial Disorders, Multiple Sclerosis, Nature-based, Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, NICU, Pelvic Health, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS), Rare Diseases, Rheumatic Diseases, Seating and Mobility, Sexuality/Intimacy, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, Swallowing & Dysphagia, TBI, Trauma & PTSD, Vestibular & Balance Rehab
Kate Holbrook
OTD, OTR/L, CBIS, CPST
Des Moines University
West Des Moines, Iowa
ADHD, Assistive Technology, Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Chronic Conditions, Coaching, Dystonia, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Health Policy, Health Promotion, Home Modifications, Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), Leadership, Maternal Health, Mitochondrial Disorders, Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS), Rare Diseases, Seating and Mobility, Social Determinants of Health, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI, Trauma & PTSD
Amanda M Fonner
OTR/L
Educator
Mercy Hospital Jefferson
Festus, Missouri
Anxiety, Burns, Cancer, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Dementia, Depression & Mood Disorders, Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Hand Therapy, Health Promotion, Low Vision Rehabilitation, Lymphedema, Multiple Sclerosis, Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, Orthopedics & Musculoskeletal, Parkinson’s, Social Determinants of Health, Stroke, TBI, Trauma & PTSD, Vestibular & Balance Rehab
Michaela Powers
OTD, OTR/L, LSVTBig, PAMS
Outstanding Tomorrows LLC
Yutan, Nebraska
Aging in Place, ADHD, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Health Promotion, Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), Multi-tiered System of Supports, Multiple Sclerosis, Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, Orthopedics & Musculoskeletal, Parkinson’s, Prevention, Rare Diseases, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI
Jason Kreuzman, MS, OTR/L
MS, OTR/L
Researcher
RewireOT
Ellisville, Missouri
Anxiety, Chronic Pain, Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS)
Mitzi Cleary
OTD, OTR/L
Therapy at School LLC and Comprehensive Therapies and Tutoring
St. Joseph, Missouri
ADHD, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND)
Greta Rompel
OTR/L
Saint Charles, Missouri
Aging in Place, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Burns, Cancer, Cerebral Palsy, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Dementia, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Health Policy, Home Modifications, Low Vision Rehabilitation, Lymphedema, Multiple Sclerosis, Neurorehabilitation, Orthopedics & Musculoskeletal, Parkinson’s, Seating and Mobility, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI
Mamie Luck
MOT, OTR/L
Occupational Therapist
Triage Staffing
Richmond, Virginia
Aging in Place, ADHD, Aquatic Therapy, Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Dementia, Dystonia, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Home Modifications, Insomnia & Sleep, Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), Lifestyle Medicine, Low Vision Rehabilitation, Multiple Sclerosis, Neurorehabilitation, NICU, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), Orthopedics & Musculoskeletal, Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Prevention, Population Health, Seating and Mobility, Social Determinants of Health, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI, Trauma & PTSD
Sandy York
OTR/L
York Home Health
Altadena, California
Aging in Place, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Chronic Conditions, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Home Modifications, Neurorehabilitation, Stroke, TBI
Amanda Elsner
OTR, OTD, CNS
Katy, Texas
ADHD, Assistive Technology, Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Chronic Conditions, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), Mitochondrial Disorders, Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Prevention, Rare Diseases, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI, Trauma & PTSD, Vestibular & Balance Rehab
Lorie Rowles
OTD, OTR/L
Saint Francis University
Loretto, Pennsylvania
Aging in Place, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Home Modifications, Lifestyle Medicine, Neurorehabilitation, Parkinson’s, Prevention, Seating and Mobility, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI
Deborah Rogers
OTR/L
Holistic Healing with Deborah
Watertown, Massachusetts
ADHD, Anxiety, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Neurorehabilitation, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS)
Karen Johnson
MOT, OTR/L, CBIS, CSRS
Innovative OT NC, LLC
Holly Springs, North Carolina
Cancer, Coaching, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Dementia, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Health Promotion, Home Modifications, Multiple Sclerosis, Neurorehabilitation, Prevention, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI
Sidney Deatherage
COTA/L
Intermountain Health
Cedar City, Utah
ADHD, Autism, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Feeding and Eating, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Home Modifications, Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), Knowledge Translation, Neurorehabilitation, Parkinson’s, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI
Destiney Carmichael
OTS
Student
Xavier University
Cincinnati, Ohio
Aging in Place, ADHD, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Anxiety, Assistive Technology, Autism, Burns, Cancer, Cerebral Palsy, Chronic Conditions, Chronic Pain, CIMT, Cognitive Rehabilitation, Dementia, Dystonia, Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, Fitness, Feeding and Eating, Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), Home Modifications, Insomnia & Sleep, Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), Lymphedema, Maternal Health, Multiple Sclerosis, Nature-based, Neurodiversity, Neurorehabilitation, NICU, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), Orthopedics & Musculoskeletal, Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Parkinson’s, Pelvic Health, Prevention, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS), Rare Diseases, Rheumatic Diseases, Seating and Mobility, Sexuality/Intimacy, Social Determinants of Health, Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke, TBI, Trauma & PTSD, Vestibular & Balance Rehab
Conclusion
Hopefully, this article has helped you understand what occupational therapy for FND might look like—and whether you are a good candidate for OT!
This article is updated regularly based on newly published research. If you have any research you would like us to consider, please contact us.
Contributors
Emily Rich
PhD., OTR/L
Jason Kreuzman, MS, OTR/L
MS, OTR/L
References
Cost references
O’Mahony, B., Nielsen, G., Baxendale, S., Edwards, M. J., & Yogarajah, M. (2023). Economic cost of functional neurologic disorders: a systematic review. Neurology, 101(2), e202-e214.
Watson, M., Woodward, J., & Strom, L. A. (2023). The Financial Burden of Functional Neurological Disorders. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 23(10), 637-643.
Assessment and treatment references
Here’s the science that backs the assessment and treatment outlined above.
Nicholson C, Edwards MJ, Carson AJ, et al. Occupational therapy consensus recommendations for functional neurological disorder. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2020. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2019-322281
Nielsen G, Stone J, Matthews A, et al. Physiotherapy for functional motor disorders: a consensus recommendation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2014-309255
Aybek S, Perez DL. Diagnosis and management of functional neurological disorder. BMJ. 2022. doi:10.1136/bmj.o64
Gray N, Savage B, Scher S, Kozlowska K. Psychologically Informed Physical Therapy for Children and Adolescents With Functional Neurological Symptoms: The Wellness Approach. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2020.
Kozlowska K, Sawchuk T, Waugh JL, et al. Changing the culture of care for children and adolescents with functional neurological disorder. Epilepsy Behav Rep. 2021.
Vassilopoulos A, Mohammad S, Dure L, Kozlowska K, Fobian AD. Treatment Approaches for Functional Neurological Disorders in Children. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2022.
Nisticò V, Iacono A, Goeta D, et al. Hypermobile spectrum disorders symptoms in patients with functional neurological disorders and autism spectrum disorders: A preliminary study. Front Psychiatry. 2022.
Blitshteyn S, Treisman GJ, Ruhoy IS, et al. Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome and other common autonomic disorders are not functional neurologic disorders. Front Neurol. 2024.
OT Potential does not endorse any treatments, procedures, products, or therapists referenced herein. This information is provided as an educational service and is not intended to serve as medical advice. Anyone seeking medical advice should consult their medical provider.
